Pot-Pollen in Stingless Bee Melittology
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Pot-Pollen in Stingless Bee Melittology
Roubik, David W.; Vit, Patricia; Pedro, Silvia R.M.
Springer International Publishing AG
03/2018
481
Dura
Inglês
9783319618388
15 a 20 dias
9315
Descrição não disponível.
Forewords
Introduction
Acknowledgements
SECTION 1
Pollen and the Evolution of Mutualism
1. Pot-Pollen as a Discipline. What Does it Include?
1.1. Pot-Pollen and Palynology from an Ecological Point of View
1.2. A Modern Synthesis of Bee-Pollen and Pot-Pollen Study
1.3. Plant Reproduction
1.4. Pollination
1.5. Pollen Biology and Palynology
1.6. Applied Pollen Taxonomy
2. Are Stingless Bees a Broadly Polylectic Group? An Empirical Study of the Adjustments Required for an Improved Assessment of Pollen Diet in Bees
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Pollen Specialization Categories in Bees
2.3. Pollen Analysis of Samples
2.4. Adjustment Calculations to Assess Pollen Specialization Categories in Stingless Bees
2.4.1. Modifying the Number of Foraged Resource Items: Threshold Values and Pollen Type Versus Pollen Species
2.4.2. Modifying the Number of Available Resources: Spatial and Temporal Adjustments
2.5. The Importance of an Appropriate Assessment of Pollen Specialization in Bees: Factors Causing Low Number of Foraged Items
2.5.1 Abundant Versus Minor Pollen Types
2.5.2 Recruitment Behaviour
2.5.3 Intra-nest Pollen Analysis
2.6. Factors Causing High Number of Available Items<
2.7. Polylecty, Broad Polylecty or Simply degrees of polylecty?<
3. Pollen collected by stingless bees: a contribution to understand Amazonian biodiversity
3.1. Introduction
3.1.1 Origin and Evolution of Plant-Bee Interactions
3.2. The Use of Pollen Analysis in the Study of Bees in the Amazon Rainforest
3.3. Diversity of Plants, Stingless Bees and their Interactions in Central Amazon
3.4. Amazonian Bee Diet, Biology and Suggested Interactions Potentially Leading to Pollination
3.5. How to Improve Meliponiculture for Sustainable Development in the Amazon
3.6. Conclusions
4. The Stingless Honey Bees (Apidae, Apinae: Meliponini) in Panama, and Ecology from Pollen Analysis
4.1. An Introduction to the Stingless Honey Bees and Pot-Pollen, in Panama
4.2. Pollen niche, relative specialization, and pollen spectrum
4.2.1 Qualitative and quantitative analyses
4.2.2 Field bee short-term resource selection
4.2.3 Pollen of popular meliponines , Africanized honeybees and lesser known species
4.2.4 Pollination ecology and population biology
4.2.5 Conclusions and ecological perspective
5. The value of plants for the Mayan stingless honey bee Melipona beecheii (Apidae: Meliponini): a pollen-based study in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico
5.1. Understanding the Ecology of a Mayan Resource and Cultural Icon
5.2. Baseline Studies of Invasive Honeybees and Native Neotropical Bees
5.3. Fieldwork
5.4. Pollen Analysis from Pot-Pollen Samples
5.5. Understanding Bee Resource Use in Dynamic Natural Environments
6. Melittopalynological Studies of Stingless Bees from East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia
6.1. Introduction
^len Collection by Heterotrigona itama in Tropical Island of Taman Tropika Kenyir, Terengganu
6.3. Pollen Collection and Abundance among Colonies of Lepidotrigona terminata from a Meliponary in Besut, Terengganu
6.4. Selected Flowers Producing Pollen Preferred by Stingless Bees in Terengganu
6.5. Conclusions
7. The Contribution of Palynological Surveys to Stingless Bee Conservation: a Case Study with Melipona subnitida
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Floral Resources-Dynamics: Pot-Pollen versus Pollen from the Bees' Body
7.3. Melittopalynology as Tool for Restoration Strategies: Suitable Foraging Habitats
7.4. Concluding Remarks and Future Steps
8. Pollen Storage by Melipona quadrifasciata anthidioides in a Protected Urban Atlantic Forest Area of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Getting Pollen Loads and Pollen Grains by M. quadrifasciata anthidioides
8.3. Palynological Characteristics of Pollen Batches Collected from the Baskets of M. quadrifasciata anthidioides
8.3.1 Monofloral Pollen Loads
8.3.2 Bifloral Pollen Loads
8.3.3 Heterofloral Pollen Loads
8.3.4 Additional Pollen Types
8.3.5 Additional Structured Elements
8.4. Plant Families, Genera and Species Mostly Visited by M. quadrifasciata anthidioides
8.5. Conclusion
9. Angiosperm Resources for Stingless Bees (Apidae, Meliponini): A Pot-Pollen Melittopalynological Study in the Gulf of Mexico
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Background of Melittopalynological Studies in Mexico
9.3. Methods and Study Areas
9.4. Floral Resources Foraged by Melipona beecheii in the State of Campeche
9.4.1 Angiosperm Resources for Melipona beecheii
9.4.2 Physicochemical Analyses of Melipona beecheii Pot-Honey
9.5. Meliponiculture and Melitopalynological Study of Pot-Honey and Pot-Pollen in Veracruz
9.5.1 INANA's Sustainable Meliponiculture
9.5.2 Angiosperm Resources for Scaptotrigona mexicana, Plebeia sp. and Melipona beecheii in Veracruz
9.6. Analysis of the Plant Preferences of Stingless Bees in Campeche and Veracruz, Gulf of Mexico
9.7. Angiosperms Recorded in Systematic Mexican Melittopalynological Studies of Stingless Bees
9.8. General Considerations
10. Annual Foraging Patterns of the Maya Bee Melipona beecheii (Bennett, 1831) in Quintana Roo, Mexico
10.1. Introduction
10.2. A case study
10.2.1 Field observations: registering bees activity
10.2.2. Foraging Activity to Collect Pollen and Nectar
10.2.3. Stored Pot-Honey and Pot-Pollen Reserves
10.2.4. Offspring
10.3. Correlations Between the Studied Factors<
11. Crop Pollination by Stingless Bees
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Characteristics of Stingless Bees as Pollinators
11.3. Field Crop Pollination by Stingless Bees
11.4. Greenhouse Crop Pollination by Stingless Bees
11.5. Stingless Bee Management under Greenhouse Conditions
11.6. Perspectives
12. Stingless Bees as Potential Pollinators in Agroecosystems in Argentina: Inferences from Pot-Pollen Studies in Natural Environments
12.1. Introduction
12.2. Potential Pollination by Stingless Bees: Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors
12.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of a Reduced-Moderate Flight Range in Stingless Bees
12.2.2. Pollination Using Ground Nesting Stingless Bees
12.3. Pollen Spectra of Pot-Pollen in Colonies of Stingless Bees from Natural Environments
12.4. Crops Potentially Pollinated by Stingless Bees in Argentina
12.5. Spatial Variation of Crops in Argentina
12.6. Temporal Variation of Flower Availability in Agroecosystems
12.7. Crop and Non-Crop Flowerings Present in Agroecosystems Beneficial for the Maintenance of Permanent Stingless Bee Colonies
12.7.1. Pollinating the Target Crop
12.7.2. Weeds and Edge Vegetation as Complementary Flowerings for Permanent Stingless Bee Colonies
12.7.3. Diversified Agroecosystems as Best Habitat for Stingless Bee Pollination and Colony Management
12.8. Case Study: Pollination of Strawberries with Plebeia catamarcensis (Holmberg) in Santa Fe, Central Argentina
12.8.1. Strawberry Cultivation in Argentina
12.8.2 The Strawberry in Santa Fe
12.8.3 Meliponini: Potential Pollinators in Santa Fe Strawberry Crops
SECTION 2
Biodiversity, Behavior and Microorganisms of the Stingless Bees (Meliponini)
13. Stingless bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Meliponini) from Gabon
13.1. Introduction
13.2. Taxonomy and Morphological Diversity of Stingless Bees in Gabon
13.3. Distribution of Stingless Bee Fauna in Gabon
13.4. Biology, Ecology and Nesting Behavior of the Stingless Bees
13.5. Knowledge and Traditional Use of Stingless Bees in Gabon
13.6. Conclusion
14. Pushing 100 Species: Meliponines (Apidae: Meliponini) in a Parcel of Western Amazonian Forest at Yasuni Biosphere Reserve, Ecuador
14.1. Yasuni Forest and Melittological Background
14.2. Discovering Meliponine Biodiversity
14.3. Species Accounts and Frequency
14.4. Insights from Comparative Morphology and other Rich Amazonian Areas
14.5. Bioprospecting for Pollination Knowledge and Sustainable Exploitation
15. Diversity of Stingless Bees in Ecuador, Pot-Pollen Standards and Meliponiculture Fostering a Living Museum for Meliponini of the World
15.1. Introduction
15.2. Megabiodiversity of Stingless Bees in Ecuador
15.3. A Revised Ecuadorian Honey Norm and Approach to Pot-Pollen Standards
15.4. Stingless Bee Keepers are Crucial for the Heritage and Conservation Mission
15.5. A Stingless Bee Window to Look at Climate Warming
15.5. Why a Living Museum to Embrace Meliponini of the World?
16. Nesting Ecology of Stingless Bees in Africa
16.1. Introduction
16.2. Meliponine Origin, Dispersal and Richness
16.3. Stingless Bee Species in Africa
16.4. Stingless Bee Nest Architecture
16.5. African Stingless Bee Nesting Behavior
17. On the Trophic Niche of Bees in Cerrado Areas of Brazil and Yeasts in their Stored Pollen
17.1. Introduction
17.2. Pollen Harvested by Native Bees of the Cerrado
17.3. Yeasts in Stored Pollen: Diversity and Ecological Role
18. A Review of the Artificial Diets Used as Pot-Pollen Substitutes
18.1. Introduction
18.1.1 Aim of the Chapter
18.1.2 How do Stingless Bees Harvest and Store their Food?
18.2. The Fermentation Process in Stingless Bees Storage Pots
18.2.1 General Characteristics of Pollen Fermentation
18.2.2 Microbial fermentation and nutritional enhancement of pollen
18.2.3 Impacts of Exogenous Compounds in Pollen
18.3. Microorganisms Present in Pot-Pollen
18.3.1 Generalities of host-associated microorganisms
18.3.2 Bacteria
18.3.3 Yeasts
18.3.4 Filamentous Fungi
18.4. Development of Artificial Diets
19. Yeast and Bacterial Composition in Pot-Pollen Recovered from Meliponini in Colombia: Prospects for a Promising Biological Resource
19.1. Introduction
19.2. General Properties of Corbicular Bee-Derived Pollen
19.3. The Key Bacterial Assemblages Known to be Associated with Bees and Pollen
19.4. Key Features of Yeast Communities Present in Pollen Collected by Bees: Recovery and Identification of Yeasts found in Pollen Collected by Four Genera of Stingless Bees from Colombia
19.5 Final remarks
SECTION 3
Stingless Bees in Culture and Traditions
20. Cultural, Psychological and Organoleptic Factors Related to the Use of Stingless Bees by Rural Residents of Northern Misiones, Argentina
20.1. Introduction
20.2. Southernmost Atlantic Forest Ecoregion
20.3. Ethnobiological Field Work
20.4. Cultural, Psychological and Organoleptic Factors Context
20.4.1 Cultural Factors
20.4.2 Psychological Factors
20.4.3 Organoleptic Factors
20.5. Context of Exploitation of Stingless Bees
20.6. Cultural and Psychological Factors Related to the Use of Stingless Bees
20.7. Relationships Between Pot-Honey, Pot-Pollen, and Cultural, Psychological Factors
20.8. Conclusions and Future Challenges
21. The Maya Universe in a Pollen Pot Native Stingless Bees in Precolumbian Maya Art
21.1. Introduction
21.2. Maya Bee Myths
21.3. Small Format Modelled Sculptures
21.3.1 Small Clay Bee
21.3.2 Ceramic Beehive
21.3.3 Censers
^; Bees and Stingless Bee Keeping in a Sacred Maya Book
21.4.1 Melipona beecheii in the Tro-Cortesianus Codex
21.4.2 Hobon
21.5. A World View of Humankind through a Bee Model as Told by a H-men, a Traditional Maya Priest
21.6. The Maya Universe in a Pollen Pot
21.6.1 Once upon a Time, Long, Long Ago, there were Bees....
21.7. 'The Flower Dust'
SECTION 4
Chemical Composition, Bioactivity and Biodiversity of Pot-Pollen
22. Nutritional Composition of Pot-Pollen from Four Species of Stingless Bees (Meliponini) in South East Asia
22.1. Introduction
22.2. Shape and Volume of Stingless Bee Pollen Pots
22.3. Nutritional Composition
<22.3.1 Macronutrients of Pot-Pollen
22.3.2 Mineral Analysis
22.3.3 Fatty Acid Analysis
22.3.4 Amino Acid Analysis
22.4. Botanical Origin
22.5. Conclusions, Suggestion and Future Research
23. Characterization of Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-Pollen from Veracruz, Mexico
23.1. Introduction
23.2. Traditional Values of Scaptotrigona mexicana
23.3. Importance of Pot-Pollen in Meliponiculture <
23.4. Palynological Analyses of Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-pollen from Central Veracruz, Mexico
23.5. Chemical Parameters of Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-Pollen from Veracruz, Mexico
23.6. Elemental Composition of Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-pollen from Central Veracruz, Mexico
23.7. Conclusions and Perspectives on Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-Pollen in Mexico
24. Chemical Characterization and Bioactivity of Tetragonisca angustula Pot-Pollen from Merida, Venezuela
24.1. Introduction
24.2. Proximal Analysis of Tetragonisca angustula Pot-Pollen from Merida
24.3. Methods to Quantify Flavonoids, Polyphenols, Proteins, and Antioxidant Activity in Ethanolic Extracts of Tetragonisca angustula Pot-Pollen
24.3.1 Preparation of Pot-Pollen Ethanolic Extracts
24.3.2 Flavonoid Content
24.3.3 Polyphenol Content
24.3.4 Protein Content
24.3.5 Antioxidant Activity by the ABTS+* Method
24.3.6 Antioxidant Activity (AOA) by Fenton-Type Reaction
24.3.7 Hydroxyl Radical Assay
24.4. Biochemical Components and Antioxidant Activity of Ethanolic Extracts from Tetragonisca angustula Pot-Pollen 4.1 Preparation of Pot-Pollen Ethanolic Extracts
24.5. Conclusions
25. Chemical, Microbiological and Palynological composition of the 'Sambura' Melipona scutellaris Pot-Pollen
25.1. Introduction
25.2. The 'Sambura' of the True "Urucu" Bee
25.3. Physicochemical Characteristics of 'Sambura'
25.3.1 Moisture
25.3.2 Ash
25.3.3 Lipids
25.3.4 Protein<
25.3.5 Fiber
25.3.6 Carbohydrates
25.3.7 pH
25.3.8 Free Acidity
25.3.9 Water activity (Aw)
25.3.10 Total Energy Value
25.4. Microbiological Characteristics of 'Sambura'
25.5. Pollen Analysis
26. Characterization of Pot-Pollen from Southern Venezuela
26.1. Introduction
26.2. Venezuelan Stingless Bees
26.3. Botanical Origin of Venezuelan Pot-Pollen
26.4. Proximal Analysis of Venezuelan Pot-Pollen
26.5 Bioactive Components and Antioxidant Activity of Pot-Pollen Ethanolic Extracts
26.5.1 Preparation of the Ethanolic Extracts
26.5.2 Bioactive components
26.5.3 Flavonoids by HPLC-UV
26.5.4 Antioxidant Activity of Venezuelan Pot-Pollen Homogenates
26.6. Conclusions
27. Bioactivity and Botanical Origin of Austroplebeia and Tetragonula Australian Pot-Pollen
27.1. Introduction
27.2. Nutraceutical Properties of Bee Pollen
27.3. Botanical Origin of Australian Pot-Pollen
27.4. Flavonoids, Polyphenols and Antioxidant Activity
27.5. Antibacterial Activity of Australian Pot-Pollen
27.6. Conclusions
28. Antibacterial Activity of Ethanolic Extracts of Pot-Pollen from Eight Meliponine Species from Venezuela
28.1. Introduction
28.1.1 Biological Potential of Pollen Stored in Bee Nests
28.1.2 Aim of the Chapter
28.2. Pot-Pollen Samples and Ethanolic Extraction
28.3. Well Diffusion Agar and Minimal Inhibitory Concentration Methods
28.4. Antibacterial Activity of Venezuelan Pot-Pollen Ethanolic Extracts
28.4.1 Inhibition Zone Diameters
28.4.2 Minimal Inhibitory Concentrations
28.4.3 Antibacterial Activity of Pollen and Polyphenols
28.4. Conclusions
29. Metabolomics of Pot-Pollen from Three Species of Australian Stingless Bees (Meliponini)
29.1. Introduction
29.1.1 Historical Accounts of Australian Pot-Pollen
29.1.2 Health Benefits of Bee Pollen
29.1.3 Botanical Sources within Flight Range<
29.1.4 Food Security
29.1.5 Research in Australian Meliponini Bee Products
29.1.6 Aim of the Chapter
29.2. Methods of Chromatographic Analysis of Pot-Pollen
29.2.1 Sampling Pot-Pollen from Bee Hives of Australian Meliponini
29.2.2 Extraction
29.2.3 Volatiles by HS-SPME-GC-MS
29.2.4 Chemical constituents by UPLC-DAD-ESI(-)-MS/MS
29.2.5 Targeted Analyses of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids (PA) by ESI(+)-MS/MS
29.2.6 Metabolomics of Pot-Pollen VOCs and Phenolics
29.3. Chemometrics of Australian Meliponini Pot-Pollen
29.3.1 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
29.3.2 Secondary Metabolites by LC-UV-HRMS/MS
29.3.3 Chemometrics Using Open Source Data
29.4. Future studies of Australian Pot-Pollen
29.4.1 Botanical and ecological studies
29.4.2 Microbiological and Metabolomics of Australian Pot-Pollen
29.4.3 Recent Trends in Australian Meliponiculture
29.5. Conclusions
SECTION 6
Marketing and Standards of Pot-Pollen
30. Rural-Urban Meliponiculture and Ecosystems in Neotropical areas. Scaptotrigona, a Resilient Stingless Bee?
30.1. Introduction 30.2. Initiatives to Revitalize Stingless Bee Keeping
30.3. Traditional Knowledge Involving Scaptotrigona
30.4. One stingless bee, Scaptotrigona over Melipona
30.5. Naming Pot-Honey and Pot-Pollen in Labels of Commercial Products
30.6. Future of Social Interventions in Meliponiculture
31. Pot-Pollen "Sambura" Marketing in Brazil, and Suggested Legisation
31.1. Introduction
31.2. Pot-Pollen is Known as 'Sambura' in Brazil
31.3. Meliponine Species Used for the Production of 'Sambura'
31.4. Harvesting and Processing
31.5. Marketing of Meliponine 'Sambura'
31.6. Cultural Aspects of Pot-Pollen Consumption in Brazil
31.7. Strategies to Increase the Production of ?Sambura'
31.8. Seasonality of Pot-Pollen
31.9. Pot-Pollen Production Initiatives in Brazilian States
31.10. Suggested 'Sambura' Standards for Pot-Pollen Legislation
Appendix A
Ethnic Names of Stingless Bees
Appendix B
Microorganisms Associated with Stingless Bees or Used to Test Antimicrobial Activity (AM)
ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL
Appendix C
Taxonomic Index of Bees
Appendix D
List of Bee Taxa
Appendix E
Taxonomic Index of Plant Families
Appendix F
List of Plant Taxa Used by Bees
INDEX
Introduction
Acknowledgements
SECTION 1
Pollen and the Evolution of Mutualism
1. Pot-Pollen as a Discipline. What Does it Include?
1.1. Pot-Pollen and Palynology from an Ecological Point of View
1.2. A Modern Synthesis of Bee-Pollen and Pot-Pollen Study
1.3. Plant Reproduction
1.4. Pollination
1.5. Pollen Biology and Palynology
1.6. Applied Pollen Taxonomy
2. Are Stingless Bees a Broadly Polylectic Group? An Empirical Study of the Adjustments Required for an Improved Assessment of Pollen Diet in Bees
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Pollen Specialization Categories in Bees
2.3. Pollen Analysis of Samples
2.4. Adjustment Calculations to Assess Pollen Specialization Categories in Stingless Bees
2.4.1. Modifying the Number of Foraged Resource Items: Threshold Values and Pollen Type Versus Pollen Species
2.4.2. Modifying the Number of Available Resources: Spatial and Temporal Adjustments
2.5. The Importance of an Appropriate Assessment of Pollen Specialization in Bees: Factors Causing Low Number of Foraged Items
2.5.1 Abundant Versus Minor Pollen Types
2.5.2 Recruitment Behaviour
2.5.3 Intra-nest Pollen Analysis
2.6. Factors Causing High Number of Available Items<
2.7. Polylecty, Broad Polylecty or Simply degrees of polylecty?<
3. Pollen collected by stingless bees: a contribution to understand Amazonian biodiversity
3.1. Introduction
3.1.1 Origin and Evolution of Plant-Bee Interactions
3.2. The Use of Pollen Analysis in the Study of Bees in the Amazon Rainforest
3.3. Diversity of Plants, Stingless Bees and their Interactions in Central Amazon
3.4. Amazonian Bee Diet, Biology and Suggested Interactions Potentially Leading to Pollination
3.5. How to Improve Meliponiculture for Sustainable Development in the Amazon
3.6. Conclusions
4. The Stingless Honey Bees (Apidae, Apinae: Meliponini) in Panama, and Ecology from Pollen Analysis
4.1. An Introduction to the Stingless Honey Bees and Pot-Pollen, in Panama
4.2. Pollen niche, relative specialization, and pollen spectrum
4.2.1 Qualitative and quantitative analyses
4.2.2 Field bee short-term resource selection
4.2.3 Pollen of popular meliponines , Africanized honeybees and lesser known species
4.2.4 Pollination ecology and population biology
4.2.5 Conclusions and ecological perspective
5. The value of plants for the Mayan stingless honey bee Melipona beecheii (Apidae: Meliponini): a pollen-based study in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico
5.1. Understanding the Ecology of a Mayan Resource and Cultural Icon
5.2. Baseline Studies of Invasive Honeybees and Native Neotropical Bees
5.3. Fieldwork
5.4. Pollen Analysis from Pot-Pollen Samples
5.5. Understanding Bee Resource Use in Dynamic Natural Environments
6. Melittopalynological Studies of Stingless Bees from East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia
6.1. Introduction
^len Collection by Heterotrigona itama in Tropical Island of Taman Tropika Kenyir, Terengganu
6.3. Pollen Collection and Abundance among Colonies of Lepidotrigona terminata from a Meliponary in Besut, Terengganu
6.4. Selected Flowers Producing Pollen Preferred by Stingless Bees in Terengganu
6.5. Conclusions
7. The Contribution of Palynological Surveys to Stingless Bee Conservation: a Case Study with Melipona subnitida
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Floral Resources-Dynamics: Pot-Pollen versus Pollen from the Bees' Body
7.3. Melittopalynology as Tool for Restoration Strategies: Suitable Foraging Habitats
7.4. Concluding Remarks and Future Steps
8. Pollen Storage by Melipona quadrifasciata anthidioides in a Protected Urban Atlantic Forest Area of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Getting Pollen Loads and Pollen Grains by M. quadrifasciata anthidioides
8.3. Palynological Characteristics of Pollen Batches Collected from the Baskets of M. quadrifasciata anthidioides
8.3.1 Monofloral Pollen Loads
8.3.2 Bifloral Pollen Loads
8.3.3 Heterofloral Pollen Loads
8.3.4 Additional Pollen Types
8.3.5 Additional Structured Elements
8.4. Plant Families, Genera and Species Mostly Visited by M. quadrifasciata anthidioides
8.5. Conclusion
9. Angiosperm Resources for Stingless Bees (Apidae, Meliponini): A Pot-Pollen Melittopalynological Study in the Gulf of Mexico
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Background of Melittopalynological Studies in Mexico
9.3. Methods and Study Areas
9.4. Floral Resources Foraged by Melipona beecheii in the State of Campeche
9.4.1 Angiosperm Resources for Melipona beecheii
9.4.2 Physicochemical Analyses of Melipona beecheii Pot-Honey
9.5. Meliponiculture and Melitopalynological Study of Pot-Honey and Pot-Pollen in Veracruz
9.5.1 INANA's Sustainable Meliponiculture
9.5.2 Angiosperm Resources for Scaptotrigona mexicana, Plebeia sp. and Melipona beecheii in Veracruz
9.6. Analysis of the Plant Preferences of Stingless Bees in Campeche and Veracruz, Gulf of Mexico
9.7. Angiosperms Recorded in Systematic Mexican Melittopalynological Studies of Stingless Bees
9.8. General Considerations
10. Annual Foraging Patterns of the Maya Bee Melipona beecheii (Bennett, 1831) in Quintana Roo, Mexico
10.1. Introduction
10.2. A case study
10.2.1 Field observations: registering bees activity
10.2.2. Foraging Activity to Collect Pollen and Nectar
10.2.3. Stored Pot-Honey and Pot-Pollen Reserves
10.2.4. Offspring
10.3. Correlations Between the Studied Factors<
11. Crop Pollination by Stingless Bees
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Characteristics of Stingless Bees as Pollinators
11.3. Field Crop Pollination by Stingless Bees
11.4. Greenhouse Crop Pollination by Stingless Bees
11.5. Stingless Bee Management under Greenhouse Conditions
11.6. Perspectives
12. Stingless Bees as Potential Pollinators in Agroecosystems in Argentina: Inferences from Pot-Pollen Studies in Natural Environments
12.1. Introduction
12.2. Potential Pollination by Stingless Bees: Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors
12.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of a Reduced-Moderate Flight Range in Stingless Bees
12.2.2. Pollination Using Ground Nesting Stingless Bees
12.3. Pollen Spectra of Pot-Pollen in Colonies of Stingless Bees from Natural Environments
12.4. Crops Potentially Pollinated by Stingless Bees in Argentina
12.5. Spatial Variation of Crops in Argentina
12.6. Temporal Variation of Flower Availability in Agroecosystems
12.7. Crop and Non-Crop Flowerings Present in Agroecosystems Beneficial for the Maintenance of Permanent Stingless Bee Colonies
12.7.1. Pollinating the Target Crop
12.7.2. Weeds and Edge Vegetation as Complementary Flowerings for Permanent Stingless Bee Colonies
12.7.3. Diversified Agroecosystems as Best Habitat for Stingless Bee Pollination and Colony Management
12.8. Case Study: Pollination of Strawberries with Plebeia catamarcensis (Holmberg) in Santa Fe, Central Argentina
12.8.1. Strawberry Cultivation in Argentina
12.8.2 The Strawberry in Santa Fe
12.8.3 Meliponini: Potential Pollinators in Santa Fe Strawberry Crops
SECTION 2
Biodiversity, Behavior and Microorganisms of the Stingless Bees (Meliponini)
13. Stingless bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Meliponini) from Gabon
13.1. Introduction
13.2. Taxonomy and Morphological Diversity of Stingless Bees in Gabon
13.3. Distribution of Stingless Bee Fauna in Gabon
13.4. Biology, Ecology and Nesting Behavior of the Stingless Bees
13.5. Knowledge and Traditional Use of Stingless Bees in Gabon
13.6. Conclusion
14. Pushing 100 Species: Meliponines (Apidae: Meliponini) in a Parcel of Western Amazonian Forest at Yasuni Biosphere Reserve, Ecuador
14.1. Yasuni Forest and Melittological Background
14.2. Discovering Meliponine Biodiversity
14.3. Species Accounts and Frequency
14.4. Insights from Comparative Morphology and other Rich Amazonian Areas
14.5. Bioprospecting for Pollination Knowledge and Sustainable Exploitation
15. Diversity of Stingless Bees in Ecuador, Pot-Pollen Standards and Meliponiculture Fostering a Living Museum for Meliponini of the World
15.1. Introduction
15.2. Megabiodiversity of Stingless Bees in Ecuador
15.3. A Revised Ecuadorian Honey Norm and Approach to Pot-Pollen Standards
15.4. Stingless Bee Keepers are Crucial for the Heritage and Conservation Mission
15.5. A Stingless Bee Window to Look at Climate Warming
15.5. Why a Living Museum to Embrace Meliponini of the World?
16. Nesting Ecology of Stingless Bees in Africa
16.1. Introduction
16.2. Meliponine Origin, Dispersal and Richness
16.3. Stingless Bee Species in Africa
16.4. Stingless Bee Nest Architecture
16.5. African Stingless Bee Nesting Behavior
17. On the Trophic Niche of Bees in Cerrado Areas of Brazil and Yeasts in their Stored Pollen
17.1. Introduction
17.2. Pollen Harvested by Native Bees of the Cerrado
17.3. Yeasts in Stored Pollen: Diversity and Ecological Role
18. A Review of the Artificial Diets Used as Pot-Pollen Substitutes
18.1. Introduction
18.1.1 Aim of the Chapter
18.1.2 How do Stingless Bees Harvest and Store their Food?
18.2. The Fermentation Process in Stingless Bees Storage Pots
18.2.1 General Characteristics of Pollen Fermentation
18.2.2 Microbial fermentation and nutritional enhancement of pollen
18.2.3 Impacts of Exogenous Compounds in Pollen
18.3. Microorganisms Present in Pot-Pollen
18.3.1 Generalities of host-associated microorganisms
18.3.2 Bacteria
18.3.3 Yeasts
18.3.4 Filamentous Fungi
18.4. Development of Artificial Diets
19. Yeast and Bacterial Composition in Pot-Pollen Recovered from Meliponini in Colombia: Prospects for a Promising Biological Resource
19.1. Introduction
19.2. General Properties of Corbicular Bee-Derived Pollen
19.3. The Key Bacterial Assemblages Known to be Associated with Bees and Pollen
19.4. Key Features of Yeast Communities Present in Pollen Collected by Bees: Recovery and Identification of Yeasts found in Pollen Collected by Four Genera of Stingless Bees from Colombia
19.5 Final remarks
SECTION 3
Stingless Bees in Culture and Traditions
20. Cultural, Psychological and Organoleptic Factors Related to the Use of Stingless Bees by Rural Residents of Northern Misiones, Argentina
20.1. Introduction
20.2. Southernmost Atlantic Forest Ecoregion
20.3. Ethnobiological Field Work
20.4. Cultural, Psychological and Organoleptic Factors Context
20.4.1 Cultural Factors
20.4.2 Psychological Factors
20.4.3 Organoleptic Factors
20.5. Context of Exploitation of Stingless Bees
20.6. Cultural and Psychological Factors Related to the Use of Stingless Bees
20.7. Relationships Between Pot-Honey, Pot-Pollen, and Cultural, Psychological Factors
20.8. Conclusions and Future Challenges
21. The Maya Universe in a Pollen Pot Native Stingless Bees in Precolumbian Maya Art
21.1. Introduction
21.2. Maya Bee Myths
21.3. Small Format Modelled Sculptures
21.3.1 Small Clay Bee
21.3.2 Ceramic Beehive
21.3.3 Censers
^; Bees and Stingless Bee Keeping in a Sacred Maya Book
21.4.1 Melipona beecheii in the Tro-Cortesianus Codex
21.4.2 Hobon
21.5. A World View of Humankind through a Bee Model as Told by a H-men, a Traditional Maya Priest
21.6. The Maya Universe in a Pollen Pot
21.6.1 Once upon a Time, Long, Long Ago, there were Bees....
21.7. 'The Flower Dust'
SECTION 4
Chemical Composition, Bioactivity and Biodiversity of Pot-Pollen
22. Nutritional Composition of Pot-Pollen from Four Species of Stingless Bees (Meliponini) in South East Asia
22.1. Introduction
22.2. Shape and Volume of Stingless Bee Pollen Pots
22.3. Nutritional Composition
<22.3.1 Macronutrients of Pot-Pollen
22.3.2 Mineral Analysis
22.3.3 Fatty Acid Analysis
22.3.4 Amino Acid Analysis
22.4. Botanical Origin
22.5. Conclusions, Suggestion and Future Research
23. Characterization of Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-Pollen from Veracruz, Mexico
23.1. Introduction
23.2. Traditional Values of Scaptotrigona mexicana
23.3. Importance of Pot-Pollen in Meliponiculture <
23.4. Palynological Analyses of Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-pollen from Central Veracruz, Mexico
23.5. Chemical Parameters of Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-Pollen from Veracruz, Mexico
23.6. Elemental Composition of Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-pollen from Central Veracruz, Mexico
23.7. Conclusions and Perspectives on Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-Pollen in Mexico
24. Chemical Characterization and Bioactivity of Tetragonisca angustula Pot-Pollen from Merida, Venezuela
24.1. Introduction
24.2. Proximal Analysis of Tetragonisca angustula Pot-Pollen from Merida
24.3. Methods to Quantify Flavonoids, Polyphenols, Proteins, and Antioxidant Activity in Ethanolic Extracts of Tetragonisca angustula Pot-Pollen
24.3.1 Preparation of Pot-Pollen Ethanolic Extracts
24.3.2 Flavonoid Content
24.3.3 Polyphenol Content
24.3.4 Protein Content
24.3.5 Antioxidant Activity by the ABTS+* Method
24.3.6 Antioxidant Activity (AOA) by Fenton-Type Reaction
24.3.7 Hydroxyl Radical Assay
24.4. Biochemical Components and Antioxidant Activity of Ethanolic Extracts from Tetragonisca angustula Pot-Pollen 4.1 Preparation of Pot-Pollen Ethanolic Extracts
24.5. Conclusions
25. Chemical, Microbiological and Palynological composition of the 'Sambura' Melipona scutellaris Pot-Pollen
25.1. Introduction
25.2. The 'Sambura' of the True "Urucu" Bee
25.3. Physicochemical Characteristics of 'Sambura'
25.3.1 Moisture
25.3.2 Ash
25.3.3 Lipids
25.3.4 Protein<
25.3.5 Fiber
25.3.6 Carbohydrates
25.3.7 pH
25.3.8 Free Acidity
25.3.9 Water activity (Aw)
25.3.10 Total Energy Value
25.4. Microbiological Characteristics of 'Sambura'
25.5. Pollen Analysis
26. Characterization of Pot-Pollen from Southern Venezuela
26.1. Introduction
26.2. Venezuelan Stingless Bees
26.3. Botanical Origin of Venezuelan Pot-Pollen
26.4. Proximal Analysis of Venezuelan Pot-Pollen
26.5 Bioactive Components and Antioxidant Activity of Pot-Pollen Ethanolic Extracts
26.5.1 Preparation of the Ethanolic Extracts
26.5.2 Bioactive components
26.5.3 Flavonoids by HPLC-UV
26.5.4 Antioxidant Activity of Venezuelan Pot-Pollen Homogenates
26.6. Conclusions
27. Bioactivity and Botanical Origin of Austroplebeia and Tetragonula Australian Pot-Pollen
27.1. Introduction
27.2. Nutraceutical Properties of Bee Pollen
27.3. Botanical Origin of Australian Pot-Pollen
27.4. Flavonoids, Polyphenols and Antioxidant Activity
27.5. Antibacterial Activity of Australian Pot-Pollen
27.6. Conclusions
28. Antibacterial Activity of Ethanolic Extracts of Pot-Pollen from Eight Meliponine Species from Venezuela
28.1. Introduction
28.1.1 Biological Potential of Pollen Stored in Bee Nests
28.1.2 Aim of the Chapter
28.2. Pot-Pollen Samples and Ethanolic Extraction
28.3. Well Diffusion Agar and Minimal Inhibitory Concentration Methods
28.4. Antibacterial Activity of Venezuelan Pot-Pollen Ethanolic Extracts
28.4.1 Inhibition Zone Diameters
28.4.2 Minimal Inhibitory Concentrations
28.4.3 Antibacterial Activity of Pollen and Polyphenols
28.4. Conclusions
29. Metabolomics of Pot-Pollen from Three Species of Australian Stingless Bees (Meliponini)
29.1. Introduction
29.1.1 Historical Accounts of Australian Pot-Pollen
29.1.2 Health Benefits of Bee Pollen
29.1.3 Botanical Sources within Flight Range<
29.1.4 Food Security
29.1.5 Research in Australian Meliponini Bee Products
29.1.6 Aim of the Chapter
29.2. Methods of Chromatographic Analysis of Pot-Pollen
29.2.1 Sampling Pot-Pollen from Bee Hives of Australian Meliponini
29.2.2 Extraction
29.2.3 Volatiles by HS-SPME-GC-MS
29.2.4 Chemical constituents by UPLC-DAD-ESI(-)-MS/MS
29.2.5 Targeted Analyses of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids (PA) by ESI(+)-MS/MS
29.2.6 Metabolomics of Pot-Pollen VOCs and Phenolics
29.3. Chemometrics of Australian Meliponini Pot-Pollen
29.3.1 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
29.3.2 Secondary Metabolites by LC-UV-HRMS/MS
29.3.3 Chemometrics Using Open Source Data
29.4. Future studies of Australian Pot-Pollen
29.4.1 Botanical and ecological studies
29.4.2 Microbiological and Metabolomics of Australian Pot-Pollen
29.4.3 Recent Trends in Australian Meliponiculture
29.5. Conclusions
SECTION 6
Marketing and Standards of Pot-Pollen
30. Rural-Urban Meliponiculture and Ecosystems in Neotropical areas. Scaptotrigona, a Resilient Stingless Bee?
30.1. Introduction 30.2. Initiatives to Revitalize Stingless Bee Keeping
30.3. Traditional Knowledge Involving Scaptotrigona
30.4. One stingless bee, Scaptotrigona over Melipona
30.5. Naming Pot-Honey and Pot-Pollen in Labels of Commercial Products
30.6. Future of Social Interventions in Meliponiculture
31. Pot-Pollen "Sambura" Marketing in Brazil, and Suggested Legisation
31.1. Introduction
31.2. Pot-Pollen is Known as 'Sambura' in Brazil
31.3. Meliponine Species Used for the Production of 'Sambura'
31.4. Harvesting and Processing
31.5. Marketing of Meliponine 'Sambura'
31.6. Cultural Aspects of Pot-Pollen Consumption in Brazil
31.7. Strategies to Increase the Production of ?Sambura'
31.8. Seasonality of Pot-Pollen
31.9. Pot-Pollen Production Initiatives in Brazilian States
31.10. Suggested 'Sambura' Standards for Pot-Pollen Legislation
Appendix A
Ethnic Names of Stingless Bees
Appendix B
Microorganisms Associated with Stingless Bees or Used to Test Antimicrobial Activity (AM)
ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL
Appendix C
Taxonomic Index of Bees
Appendix D
List of Bee Taxa
Appendix E
Taxonomic Index of Plant Families
Appendix F
List of Plant Taxa Used by Bees
INDEX
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Food Chemistry;Conservation Biology;Sociobiology;Entomology;Food Science;Ethnopharmacology;South America;Meliponini;honey;pot-pollen;stingless bee;beekeeping
Forewords
Introduction
Acknowledgements
SECTION 1
Pollen and the Evolution of Mutualism
1. Pot-Pollen as a Discipline. What Does it Include?
1.1. Pot-Pollen and Palynology from an Ecological Point of View
1.2. A Modern Synthesis of Bee-Pollen and Pot-Pollen Study
1.3. Plant Reproduction
1.4. Pollination
1.5. Pollen Biology and Palynology
1.6. Applied Pollen Taxonomy
2. Are Stingless Bees a Broadly Polylectic Group? An Empirical Study of the Adjustments Required for an Improved Assessment of Pollen Diet in Bees
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Pollen Specialization Categories in Bees
2.3. Pollen Analysis of Samples
2.4. Adjustment Calculations to Assess Pollen Specialization Categories in Stingless Bees
2.4.1. Modifying the Number of Foraged Resource Items: Threshold Values and Pollen Type Versus Pollen Species
2.4.2. Modifying the Number of Available Resources: Spatial and Temporal Adjustments
2.5. The Importance of an Appropriate Assessment of Pollen Specialization in Bees: Factors Causing Low Number of Foraged Items
2.5.1 Abundant Versus Minor Pollen Types
2.5.2 Recruitment Behaviour
2.5.3 Intra-nest Pollen Analysis
2.6. Factors Causing High Number of Available Items<
2.7. Polylecty, Broad Polylecty or Simply degrees of polylecty?<
3. Pollen collected by stingless bees: a contribution to understand Amazonian biodiversity
3.1. Introduction
3.1.1 Origin and Evolution of Plant-Bee Interactions
3.2. The Use of Pollen Analysis in the Study of Bees in the Amazon Rainforest
3.3. Diversity of Plants, Stingless Bees and their Interactions in Central Amazon
3.4. Amazonian Bee Diet, Biology and Suggested Interactions Potentially Leading to Pollination
3.5. How to Improve Meliponiculture for Sustainable Development in the Amazon
3.6. Conclusions
4. The Stingless Honey Bees (Apidae, Apinae: Meliponini) in Panama, and Ecology from Pollen Analysis
4.1. An Introduction to the Stingless Honey Bees and Pot-Pollen, in Panama
4.2. Pollen niche, relative specialization, and pollen spectrum
4.2.1 Qualitative and quantitative analyses
4.2.2 Field bee short-term resource selection
4.2.3 Pollen of popular meliponines , Africanized honeybees and lesser known species
4.2.4 Pollination ecology and population biology
4.2.5 Conclusions and ecological perspective
5. The value of plants for the Mayan stingless honey bee Melipona beecheii (Apidae: Meliponini): a pollen-based study in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico
5.1. Understanding the Ecology of a Mayan Resource and Cultural Icon
5.2. Baseline Studies of Invasive Honeybees and Native Neotropical Bees
5.3. Fieldwork
5.4. Pollen Analysis from Pot-Pollen Samples
5.5. Understanding Bee Resource Use in Dynamic Natural Environments
6. Melittopalynological Studies of Stingless Bees from East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia
6.1. Introduction
^len Collection by Heterotrigona itama in Tropical Island of Taman Tropika Kenyir, Terengganu
6.3. Pollen Collection and Abundance among Colonies of Lepidotrigona terminata from a Meliponary in Besut, Terengganu
6.4. Selected Flowers Producing Pollen Preferred by Stingless Bees in Terengganu
6.5. Conclusions
7. The Contribution of Palynological Surveys to Stingless Bee Conservation: a Case Study with Melipona subnitida
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Floral Resources-Dynamics: Pot-Pollen versus Pollen from the Bees' Body
7.3. Melittopalynology as Tool for Restoration Strategies: Suitable Foraging Habitats
7.4. Concluding Remarks and Future Steps
8. Pollen Storage by Melipona quadrifasciata anthidioides in a Protected Urban Atlantic Forest Area of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Getting Pollen Loads and Pollen Grains by M. quadrifasciata anthidioides
8.3. Palynological Characteristics of Pollen Batches Collected from the Baskets of M. quadrifasciata anthidioides
8.3.1 Monofloral Pollen Loads
8.3.2 Bifloral Pollen Loads
8.3.3 Heterofloral Pollen Loads
8.3.4 Additional Pollen Types
8.3.5 Additional Structured Elements
8.4. Plant Families, Genera and Species Mostly Visited by M. quadrifasciata anthidioides
8.5. Conclusion
9. Angiosperm Resources for Stingless Bees (Apidae, Meliponini): A Pot-Pollen Melittopalynological Study in the Gulf of Mexico
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Background of Melittopalynological Studies in Mexico
9.3. Methods and Study Areas
9.4. Floral Resources Foraged by Melipona beecheii in the State of Campeche
9.4.1 Angiosperm Resources for Melipona beecheii
9.4.2 Physicochemical Analyses of Melipona beecheii Pot-Honey
9.5. Meliponiculture and Melitopalynological Study of Pot-Honey and Pot-Pollen in Veracruz
9.5.1 INANA's Sustainable Meliponiculture
9.5.2 Angiosperm Resources for Scaptotrigona mexicana, Plebeia sp. and Melipona beecheii in Veracruz
9.6. Analysis of the Plant Preferences of Stingless Bees in Campeche and Veracruz, Gulf of Mexico
9.7. Angiosperms Recorded in Systematic Mexican Melittopalynological Studies of Stingless Bees
9.8. General Considerations
10. Annual Foraging Patterns of the Maya Bee Melipona beecheii (Bennett, 1831) in Quintana Roo, Mexico
10.1. Introduction
10.2. A case study
10.2.1 Field observations: registering bees activity
10.2.2. Foraging Activity to Collect Pollen and Nectar
10.2.3. Stored Pot-Honey and Pot-Pollen Reserves
10.2.4. Offspring
10.3. Correlations Between the Studied Factors<
11. Crop Pollination by Stingless Bees
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Characteristics of Stingless Bees as Pollinators
11.3. Field Crop Pollination by Stingless Bees
11.4. Greenhouse Crop Pollination by Stingless Bees
11.5. Stingless Bee Management under Greenhouse Conditions
11.6. Perspectives
12. Stingless Bees as Potential Pollinators in Agroecosystems in Argentina: Inferences from Pot-Pollen Studies in Natural Environments
12.1. Introduction
12.2. Potential Pollination by Stingless Bees: Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors
12.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of a Reduced-Moderate Flight Range in Stingless Bees
12.2.2. Pollination Using Ground Nesting Stingless Bees
12.3. Pollen Spectra of Pot-Pollen in Colonies of Stingless Bees from Natural Environments
12.4. Crops Potentially Pollinated by Stingless Bees in Argentina
12.5. Spatial Variation of Crops in Argentina
12.6. Temporal Variation of Flower Availability in Agroecosystems
12.7. Crop and Non-Crop Flowerings Present in Agroecosystems Beneficial for the Maintenance of Permanent Stingless Bee Colonies
12.7.1. Pollinating the Target Crop
12.7.2. Weeds and Edge Vegetation as Complementary Flowerings for Permanent Stingless Bee Colonies
12.7.3. Diversified Agroecosystems as Best Habitat for Stingless Bee Pollination and Colony Management
12.8. Case Study: Pollination of Strawberries with Plebeia catamarcensis (Holmberg) in Santa Fe, Central Argentina
12.8.1. Strawberry Cultivation in Argentina
12.8.2 The Strawberry in Santa Fe
12.8.3 Meliponini: Potential Pollinators in Santa Fe Strawberry Crops
SECTION 2
Biodiversity, Behavior and Microorganisms of the Stingless Bees (Meliponini)
13. Stingless bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Meliponini) from Gabon
13.1. Introduction
13.2. Taxonomy and Morphological Diversity of Stingless Bees in Gabon
13.3. Distribution of Stingless Bee Fauna in Gabon
13.4. Biology, Ecology and Nesting Behavior of the Stingless Bees
13.5. Knowledge and Traditional Use of Stingless Bees in Gabon
13.6. Conclusion
14. Pushing 100 Species: Meliponines (Apidae: Meliponini) in a Parcel of Western Amazonian Forest at Yasuni Biosphere Reserve, Ecuador
14.1. Yasuni Forest and Melittological Background
14.2. Discovering Meliponine Biodiversity
14.3. Species Accounts and Frequency
14.4. Insights from Comparative Morphology and other Rich Amazonian Areas
14.5. Bioprospecting for Pollination Knowledge and Sustainable Exploitation
15. Diversity of Stingless Bees in Ecuador, Pot-Pollen Standards and Meliponiculture Fostering a Living Museum for Meliponini of the World
15.1. Introduction
15.2. Megabiodiversity of Stingless Bees in Ecuador
15.3. A Revised Ecuadorian Honey Norm and Approach to Pot-Pollen Standards
15.4. Stingless Bee Keepers are Crucial for the Heritage and Conservation Mission
15.5. A Stingless Bee Window to Look at Climate Warming
15.5. Why a Living Museum to Embrace Meliponini of the World?
16. Nesting Ecology of Stingless Bees in Africa
16.1. Introduction
16.2. Meliponine Origin, Dispersal and Richness
16.3. Stingless Bee Species in Africa
16.4. Stingless Bee Nest Architecture
16.5. African Stingless Bee Nesting Behavior
17. On the Trophic Niche of Bees in Cerrado Areas of Brazil and Yeasts in their Stored Pollen
17.1. Introduction
17.2. Pollen Harvested by Native Bees of the Cerrado
17.3. Yeasts in Stored Pollen: Diversity and Ecological Role
18. A Review of the Artificial Diets Used as Pot-Pollen Substitutes
18.1. Introduction
18.1.1 Aim of the Chapter
18.1.2 How do Stingless Bees Harvest and Store their Food?
18.2. The Fermentation Process in Stingless Bees Storage Pots
18.2.1 General Characteristics of Pollen Fermentation
18.2.2 Microbial fermentation and nutritional enhancement of pollen
18.2.3 Impacts of Exogenous Compounds in Pollen
18.3. Microorganisms Present in Pot-Pollen
18.3.1 Generalities of host-associated microorganisms
18.3.2 Bacteria
18.3.3 Yeasts
18.3.4 Filamentous Fungi
18.4. Development of Artificial Diets
19. Yeast and Bacterial Composition in Pot-Pollen Recovered from Meliponini in Colombia: Prospects for a Promising Biological Resource
19.1. Introduction
19.2. General Properties of Corbicular Bee-Derived Pollen
19.3. The Key Bacterial Assemblages Known to be Associated with Bees and Pollen
19.4. Key Features of Yeast Communities Present in Pollen Collected by Bees: Recovery and Identification of Yeasts found in Pollen Collected by Four Genera of Stingless Bees from Colombia
19.5 Final remarks
SECTION 3
Stingless Bees in Culture and Traditions
20. Cultural, Psychological and Organoleptic Factors Related to the Use of Stingless Bees by Rural Residents of Northern Misiones, Argentina
20.1. Introduction
20.2. Southernmost Atlantic Forest Ecoregion
20.3. Ethnobiological Field Work
20.4. Cultural, Psychological and Organoleptic Factors Context
20.4.1 Cultural Factors
20.4.2 Psychological Factors
20.4.3 Organoleptic Factors
20.5. Context of Exploitation of Stingless Bees
20.6. Cultural and Psychological Factors Related to the Use of Stingless Bees
20.7. Relationships Between Pot-Honey, Pot-Pollen, and Cultural, Psychological Factors
20.8. Conclusions and Future Challenges
21. The Maya Universe in a Pollen Pot Native Stingless Bees in Precolumbian Maya Art
21.1. Introduction
21.2. Maya Bee Myths
21.3. Small Format Modelled Sculptures
21.3.1 Small Clay Bee
21.3.2 Ceramic Beehive
21.3.3 Censers
^; Bees and Stingless Bee Keeping in a Sacred Maya Book
21.4.1 Melipona beecheii in the Tro-Cortesianus Codex
21.4.2 Hobon
21.5. A World View of Humankind through a Bee Model as Told by a H-men, a Traditional Maya Priest
21.6. The Maya Universe in a Pollen Pot
21.6.1 Once upon a Time, Long, Long Ago, there were Bees....
21.7. 'The Flower Dust'
SECTION 4
Chemical Composition, Bioactivity and Biodiversity of Pot-Pollen
22. Nutritional Composition of Pot-Pollen from Four Species of Stingless Bees (Meliponini) in South East Asia
22.1. Introduction
22.2. Shape and Volume of Stingless Bee Pollen Pots
22.3. Nutritional Composition
<22.3.1 Macronutrients of Pot-Pollen
22.3.2 Mineral Analysis
22.3.3 Fatty Acid Analysis
22.3.4 Amino Acid Analysis
22.4. Botanical Origin
22.5. Conclusions, Suggestion and Future Research
23. Characterization of Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-Pollen from Veracruz, Mexico
23.1. Introduction
23.2. Traditional Values of Scaptotrigona mexicana
23.3. Importance of Pot-Pollen in Meliponiculture <
23.4. Palynological Analyses of Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-pollen from Central Veracruz, Mexico
23.5. Chemical Parameters of Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-Pollen from Veracruz, Mexico
23.6. Elemental Composition of Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-pollen from Central Veracruz, Mexico
23.7. Conclusions and Perspectives on Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-Pollen in Mexico
24. Chemical Characterization and Bioactivity of Tetragonisca angustula Pot-Pollen from Merida, Venezuela
24.1. Introduction
24.2. Proximal Analysis of Tetragonisca angustula Pot-Pollen from Merida
24.3. Methods to Quantify Flavonoids, Polyphenols, Proteins, and Antioxidant Activity in Ethanolic Extracts of Tetragonisca angustula Pot-Pollen
24.3.1 Preparation of Pot-Pollen Ethanolic Extracts
24.3.2 Flavonoid Content
24.3.3 Polyphenol Content
24.3.4 Protein Content
24.3.5 Antioxidant Activity by the ABTS+* Method
24.3.6 Antioxidant Activity (AOA) by Fenton-Type Reaction
24.3.7 Hydroxyl Radical Assay
24.4. Biochemical Components and Antioxidant Activity of Ethanolic Extracts from Tetragonisca angustula Pot-Pollen 4.1 Preparation of Pot-Pollen Ethanolic Extracts
24.5. Conclusions
25. Chemical, Microbiological and Palynological composition of the 'Sambura' Melipona scutellaris Pot-Pollen
25.1. Introduction
25.2. The 'Sambura' of the True "Urucu" Bee
25.3. Physicochemical Characteristics of 'Sambura'
25.3.1 Moisture
25.3.2 Ash
25.3.3 Lipids
25.3.4 Protein<
25.3.5 Fiber
25.3.6 Carbohydrates
25.3.7 pH
25.3.8 Free Acidity
25.3.9 Water activity (Aw)
25.3.10 Total Energy Value
25.4. Microbiological Characteristics of 'Sambura'
25.5. Pollen Analysis
26. Characterization of Pot-Pollen from Southern Venezuela
26.1. Introduction
26.2. Venezuelan Stingless Bees
26.3. Botanical Origin of Venezuelan Pot-Pollen
26.4. Proximal Analysis of Venezuelan Pot-Pollen
26.5 Bioactive Components and Antioxidant Activity of Pot-Pollen Ethanolic Extracts
26.5.1 Preparation of the Ethanolic Extracts
26.5.2 Bioactive components
26.5.3 Flavonoids by HPLC-UV
26.5.4 Antioxidant Activity of Venezuelan Pot-Pollen Homogenates
26.6. Conclusions
27. Bioactivity and Botanical Origin of Austroplebeia and Tetragonula Australian Pot-Pollen
27.1. Introduction
27.2. Nutraceutical Properties of Bee Pollen
27.3. Botanical Origin of Australian Pot-Pollen
27.4. Flavonoids, Polyphenols and Antioxidant Activity
27.5. Antibacterial Activity of Australian Pot-Pollen
27.6. Conclusions
28. Antibacterial Activity of Ethanolic Extracts of Pot-Pollen from Eight Meliponine Species from Venezuela
28.1. Introduction
28.1.1 Biological Potential of Pollen Stored in Bee Nests
28.1.2 Aim of the Chapter
28.2. Pot-Pollen Samples and Ethanolic Extraction
28.3. Well Diffusion Agar and Minimal Inhibitory Concentration Methods
28.4. Antibacterial Activity of Venezuelan Pot-Pollen Ethanolic Extracts
28.4.1 Inhibition Zone Diameters
28.4.2 Minimal Inhibitory Concentrations
28.4.3 Antibacterial Activity of Pollen and Polyphenols
28.4. Conclusions
29. Metabolomics of Pot-Pollen from Three Species of Australian Stingless Bees (Meliponini)
29.1. Introduction
29.1.1 Historical Accounts of Australian Pot-Pollen
29.1.2 Health Benefits of Bee Pollen
29.1.3 Botanical Sources within Flight Range<
29.1.4 Food Security
29.1.5 Research in Australian Meliponini Bee Products
29.1.6 Aim of the Chapter
29.2. Methods of Chromatographic Analysis of Pot-Pollen
29.2.1 Sampling Pot-Pollen from Bee Hives of Australian Meliponini
29.2.2 Extraction
29.2.3 Volatiles by HS-SPME-GC-MS
29.2.4 Chemical constituents by UPLC-DAD-ESI(-)-MS/MS
29.2.5 Targeted Analyses of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids (PA) by ESI(+)-MS/MS
29.2.6 Metabolomics of Pot-Pollen VOCs and Phenolics
29.3. Chemometrics of Australian Meliponini Pot-Pollen
29.3.1 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
29.3.2 Secondary Metabolites by LC-UV-HRMS/MS
29.3.3 Chemometrics Using Open Source Data
29.4. Future studies of Australian Pot-Pollen
29.4.1 Botanical and ecological studies
29.4.2 Microbiological and Metabolomics of Australian Pot-Pollen
29.4.3 Recent Trends in Australian Meliponiculture
29.5. Conclusions
SECTION 6
Marketing and Standards of Pot-Pollen
30. Rural-Urban Meliponiculture and Ecosystems in Neotropical areas. Scaptotrigona, a Resilient Stingless Bee?
30.1. Introduction 30.2. Initiatives to Revitalize Stingless Bee Keeping
30.3. Traditional Knowledge Involving Scaptotrigona
30.4. One stingless bee, Scaptotrigona over Melipona
30.5. Naming Pot-Honey and Pot-Pollen in Labels of Commercial Products
30.6. Future of Social Interventions in Meliponiculture
31. Pot-Pollen "Sambura" Marketing in Brazil, and Suggested Legisation
31.1. Introduction
31.2. Pot-Pollen is Known as 'Sambura' in Brazil
31.3. Meliponine Species Used for the Production of 'Sambura'
31.4. Harvesting and Processing
31.5. Marketing of Meliponine 'Sambura'
31.6. Cultural Aspects of Pot-Pollen Consumption in Brazil
31.7. Strategies to Increase the Production of ?Sambura'
31.8. Seasonality of Pot-Pollen
31.9. Pot-Pollen Production Initiatives in Brazilian States
31.10. Suggested 'Sambura' Standards for Pot-Pollen Legislation
Appendix A
Ethnic Names of Stingless Bees
Appendix B
Microorganisms Associated with Stingless Bees or Used to Test Antimicrobial Activity (AM)
ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL
Appendix C
Taxonomic Index of Bees
Appendix D
List of Bee Taxa
Appendix E
Taxonomic Index of Plant Families
Appendix F
List of Plant Taxa Used by Bees
INDEX
Introduction
Acknowledgements
SECTION 1
Pollen and the Evolution of Mutualism
1. Pot-Pollen as a Discipline. What Does it Include?
1.1. Pot-Pollen and Palynology from an Ecological Point of View
1.2. A Modern Synthesis of Bee-Pollen and Pot-Pollen Study
1.3. Plant Reproduction
1.4. Pollination
1.5. Pollen Biology and Palynology
1.6. Applied Pollen Taxonomy
2. Are Stingless Bees a Broadly Polylectic Group? An Empirical Study of the Adjustments Required for an Improved Assessment of Pollen Diet in Bees
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Pollen Specialization Categories in Bees
2.3. Pollen Analysis of Samples
2.4. Adjustment Calculations to Assess Pollen Specialization Categories in Stingless Bees
2.4.1. Modifying the Number of Foraged Resource Items: Threshold Values and Pollen Type Versus Pollen Species
2.4.2. Modifying the Number of Available Resources: Spatial and Temporal Adjustments
2.5. The Importance of an Appropriate Assessment of Pollen Specialization in Bees: Factors Causing Low Number of Foraged Items
2.5.1 Abundant Versus Minor Pollen Types
2.5.2 Recruitment Behaviour
2.5.3 Intra-nest Pollen Analysis
2.6. Factors Causing High Number of Available Items<
2.7. Polylecty, Broad Polylecty or Simply degrees of polylecty?<
3. Pollen collected by stingless bees: a contribution to understand Amazonian biodiversity
3.1. Introduction
3.1.1 Origin and Evolution of Plant-Bee Interactions
3.2. The Use of Pollen Analysis in the Study of Bees in the Amazon Rainforest
3.3. Diversity of Plants, Stingless Bees and their Interactions in Central Amazon
3.4. Amazonian Bee Diet, Biology and Suggested Interactions Potentially Leading to Pollination
3.5. How to Improve Meliponiculture for Sustainable Development in the Amazon
3.6. Conclusions
4. The Stingless Honey Bees (Apidae, Apinae: Meliponini) in Panama, and Ecology from Pollen Analysis
4.1. An Introduction to the Stingless Honey Bees and Pot-Pollen, in Panama
4.2. Pollen niche, relative specialization, and pollen spectrum
4.2.1 Qualitative and quantitative analyses
4.2.2 Field bee short-term resource selection
4.2.3 Pollen of popular meliponines , Africanized honeybees and lesser known species
4.2.4 Pollination ecology and population biology
4.2.5 Conclusions and ecological perspective
5. The value of plants for the Mayan stingless honey bee Melipona beecheii (Apidae: Meliponini): a pollen-based study in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico
5.1. Understanding the Ecology of a Mayan Resource and Cultural Icon
5.2. Baseline Studies of Invasive Honeybees and Native Neotropical Bees
5.3. Fieldwork
5.4. Pollen Analysis from Pot-Pollen Samples
5.5. Understanding Bee Resource Use in Dynamic Natural Environments
6. Melittopalynological Studies of Stingless Bees from East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia
6.1. Introduction
^len Collection by Heterotrigona itama in Tropical Island of Taman Tropika Kenyir, Terengganu
6.3. Pollen Collection and Abundance among Colonies of Lepidotrigona terminata from a Meliponary in Besut, Terengganu
6.4. Selected Flowers Producing Pollen Preferred by Stingless Bees in Terengganu
6.5. Conclusions
7. The Contribution of Palynological Surveys to Stingless Bee Conservation: a Case Study with Melipona subnitida
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Floral Resources-Dynamics: Pot-Pollen versus Pollen from the Bees' Body
7.3. Melittopalynology as Tool for Restoration Strategies: Suitable Foraging Habitats
7.4. Concluding Remarks and Future Steps
8. Pollen Storage by Melipona quadrifasciata anthidioides in a Protected Urban Atlantic Forest Area of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Getting Pollen Loads and Pollen Grains by M. quadrifasciata anthidioides
8.3. Palynological Characteristics of Pollen Batches Collected from the Baskets of M. quadrifasciata anthidioides
8.3.1 Monofloral Pollen Loads
8.3.2 Bifloral Pollen Loads
8.3.3 Heterofloral Pollen Loads
8.3.4 Additional Pollen Types
8.3.5 Additional Structured Elements
8.4. Plant Families, Genera and Species Mostly Visited by M. quadrifasciata anthidioides
8.5. Conclusion
9. Angiosperm Resources for Stingless Bees (Apidae, Meliponini): A Pot-Pollen Melittopalynological Study in the Gulf of Mexico
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Background of Melittopalynological Studies in Mexico
9.3. Methods and Study Areas
9.4. Floral Resources Foraged by Melipona beecheii in the State of Campeche
9.4.1 Angiosperm Resources for Melipona beecheii
9.4.2 Physicochemical Analyses of Melipona beecheii Pot-Honey
9.5. Meliponiculture and Melitopalynological Study of Pot-Honey and Pot-Pollen in Veracruz
9.5.1 INANA's Sustainable Meliponiculture
9.5.2 Angiosperm Resources for Scaptotrigona mexicana, Plebeia sp. and Melipona beecheii in Veracruz
9.6. Analysis of the Plant Preferences of Stingless Bees in Campeche and Veracruz, Gulf of Mexico
9.7. Angiosperms Recorded in Systematic Mexican Melittopalynological Studies of Stingless Bees
9.8. General Considerations
10. Annual Foraging Patterns of the Maya Bee Melipona beecheii (Bennett, 1831) in Quintana Roo, Mexico
10.1. Introduction
10.2. A case study
10.2.1 Field observations: registering bees activity
10.2.2. Foraging Activity to Collect Pollen and Nectar
10.2.3. Stored Pot-Honey and Pot-Pollen Reserves
10.2.4. Offspring
10.3. Correlations Between the Studied Factors<
11. Crop Pollination by Stingless Bees
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Characteristics of Stingless Bees as Pollinators
11.3. Field Crop Pollination by Stingless Bees
11.4. Greenhouse Crop Pollination by Stingless Bees
11.5. Stingless Bee Management under Greenhouse Conditions
11.6. Perspectives
12. Stingless Bees as Potential Pollinators in Agroecosystems in Argentina: Inferences from Pot-Pollen Studies in Natural Environments
12.1. Introduction
12.2. Potential Pollination by Stingless Bees: Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors
12.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of a Reduced-Moderate Flight Range in Stingless Bees
12.2.2. Pollination Using Ground Nesting Stingless Bees
12.3. Pollen Spectra of Pot-Pollen in Colonies of Stingless Bees from Natural Environments
12.4. Crops Potentially Pollinated by Stingless Bees in Argentina
12.5. Spatial Variation of Crops in Argentina
12.6. Temporal Variation of Flower Availability in Agroecosystems
12.7. Crop and Non-Crop Flowerings Present in Agroecosystems Beneficial for the Maintenance of Permanent Stingless Bee Colonies
12.7.1. Pollinating the Target Crop
12.7.2. Weeds and Edge Vegetation as Complementary Flowerings for Permanent Stingless Bee Colonies
12.7.3. Diversified Agroecosystems as Best Habitat for Stingless Bee Pollination and Colony Management
12.8. Case Study: Pollination of Strawberries with Plebeia catamarcensis (Holmberg) in Santa Fe, Central Argentina
12.8.1. Strawberry Cultivation in Argentina
12.8.2 The Strawberry in Santa Fe
12.8.3 Meliponini: Potential Pollinators in Santa Fe Strawberry Crops
SECTION 2
Biodiversity, Behavior and Microorganisms of the Stingless Bees (Meliponini)
13. Stingless bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Meliponini) from Gabon
13.1. Introduction
13.2. Taxonomy and Morphological Diversity of Stingless Bees in Gabon
13.3. Distribution of Stingless Bee Fauna in Gabon
13.4. Biology, Ecology and Nesting Behavior of the Stingless Bees
13.5. Knowledge and Traditional Use of Stingless Bees in Gabon
13.6. Conclusion
14. Pushing 100 Species: Meliponines (Apidae: Meliponini) in a Parcel of Western Amazonian Forest at Yasuni Biosphere Reserve, Ecuador
14.1. Yasuni Forest and Melittological Background
14.2. Discovering Meliponine Biodiversity
14.3. Species Accounts and Frequency
14.4. Insights from Comparative Morphology and other Rich Amazonian Areas
14.5. Bioprospecting for Pollination Knowledge and Sustainable Exploitation
15. Diversity of Stingless Bees in Ecuador, Pot-Pollen Standards and Meliponiculture Fostering a Living Museum for Meliponini of the World
15.1. Introduction
15.2. Megabiodiversity of Stingless Bees in Ecuador
15.3. A Revised Ecuadorian Honey Norm and Approach to Pot-Pollen Standards
15.4. Stingless Bee Keepers are Crucial for the Heritage and Conservation Mission
15.5. A Stingless Bee Window to Look at Climate Warming
15.5. Why a Living Museum to Embrace Meliponini of the World?
16. Nesting Ecology of Stingless Bees in Africa
16.1. Introduction
16.2. Meliponine Origin, Dispersal and Richness
16.3. Stingless Bee Species in Africa
16.4. Stingless Bee Nest Architecture
16.5. African Stingless Bee Nesting Behavior
17. On the Trophic Niche of Bees in Cerrado Areas of Brazil and Yeasts in their Stored Pollen
17.1. Introduction
17.2. Pollen Harvested by Native Bees of the Cerrado
17.3. Yeasts in Stored Pollen: Diversity and Ecological Role
18. A Review of the Artificial Diets Used as Pot-Pollen Substitutes
18.1. Introduction
18.1.1 Aim of the Chapter
18.1.2 How do Stingless Bees Harvest and Store their Food?
18.2. The Fermentation Process in Stingless Bees Storage Pots
18.2.1 General Characteristics of Pollen Fermentation
18.2.2 Microbial fermentation and nutritional enhancement of pollen
18.2.3 Impacts of Exogenous Compounds in Pollen
18.3. Microorganisms Present in Pot-Pollen
18.3.1 Generalities of host-associated microorganisms
18.3.2 Bacteria
18.3.3 Yeasts
18.3.4 Filamentous Fungi
18.4. Development of Artificial Diets
19. Yeast and Bacterial Composition in Pot-Pollen Recovered from Meliponini in Colombia: Prospects for a Promising Biological Resource
19.1. Introduction
19.2. General Properties of Corbicular Bee-Derived Pollen
19.3. The Key Bacterial Assemblages Known to be Associated with Bees and Pollen
19.4. Key Features of Yeast Communities Present in Pollen Collected by Bees: Recovery and Identification of Yeasts found in Pollen Collected by Four Genera of Stingless Bees from Colombia
19.5 Final remarks
SECTION 3
Stingless Bees in Culture and Traditions
20. Cultural, Psychological and Organoleptic Factors Related to the Use of Stingless Bees by Rural Residents of Northern Misiones, Argentina
20.1. Introduction
20.2. Southernmost Atlantic Forest Ecoregion
20.3. Ethnobiological Field Work
20.4. Cultural, Psychological and Organoleptic Factors Context
20.4.1 Cultural Factors
20.4.2 Psychological Factors
20.4.3 Organoleptic Factors
20.5. Context of Exploitation of Stingless Bees
20.6. Cultural and Psychological Factors Related to the Use of Stingless Bees
20.7. Relationships Between Pot-Honey, Pot-Pollen, and Cultural, Psychological Factors
20.8. Conclusions and Future Challenges
21. The Maya Universe in a Pollen Pot Native Stingless Bees in Precolumbian Maya Art
21.1. Introduction
21.2. Maya Bee Myths
21.3. Small Format Modelled Sculptures
21.3.1 Small Clay Bee
21.3.2 Ceramic Beehive
21.3.3 Censers
^; Bees and Stingless Bee Keeping in a Sacred Maya Book
21.4.1 Melipona beecheii in the Tro-Cortesianus Codex
21.4.2 Hobon
21.5. A World View of Humankind through a Bee Model as Told by a H-men, a Traditional Maya Priest
21.6. The Maya Universe in a Pollen Pot
21.6.1 Once upon a Time, Long, Long Ago, there were Bees....
21.7. 'The Flower Dust'
SECTION 4
Chemical Composition, Bioactivity and Biodiversity of Pot-Pollen
22. Nutritional Composition of Pot-Pollen from Four Species of Stingless Bees (Meliponini) in South East Asia
22.1. Introduction
22.2. Shape and Volume of Stingless Bee Pollen Pots
22.3. Nutritional Composition
<22.3.1 Macronutrients of Pot-Pollen
22.3.2 Mineral Analysis
22.3.3 Fatty Acid Analysis
22.3.4 Amino Acid Analysis
22.4. Botanical Origin
22.5. Conclusions, Suggestion and Future Research
23. Characterization of Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-Pollen from Veracruz, Mexico
23.1. Introduction
23.2. Traditional Values of Scaptotrigona mexicana
23.3. Importance of Pot-Pollen in Meliponiculture <
23.4. Palynological Analyses of Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-pollen from Central Veracruz, Mexico
23.5. Chemical Parameters of Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-Pollen from Veracruz, Mexico
23.6. Elemental Composition of Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-pollen from Central Veracruz, Mexico
23.7. Conclusions and Perspectives on Scaptotrigona mexicana Pot-Pollen in Mexico
24. Chemical Characterization and Bioactivity of Tetragonisca angustula Pot-Pollen from Merida, Venezuela
24.1. Introduction
24.2. Proximal Analysis of Tetragonisca angustula Pot-Pollen from Merida
24.3. Methods to Quantify Flavonoids, Polyphenols, Proteins, and Antioxidant Activity in Ethanolic Extracts of Tetragonisca angustula Pot-Pollen
24.3.1 Preparation of Pot-Pollen Ethanolic Extracts
24.3.2 Flavonoid Content
24.3.3 Polyphenol Content
24.3.4 Protein Content
24.3.5 Antioxidant Activity by the ABTS+* Method
24.3.6 Antioxidant Activity (AOA) by Fenton-Type Reaction
24.3.7 Hydroxyl Radical Assay
24.4. Biochemical Components and Antioxidant Activity of Ethanolic Extracts from Tetragonisca angustula Pot-Pollen 4.1 Preparation of Pot-Pollen Ethanolic Extracts
24.5. Conclusions
25. Chemical, Microbiological and Palynological composition of the 'Sambura' Melipona scutellaris Pot-Pollen
25.1. Introduction
25.2. The 'Sambura' of the True "Urucu" Bee
25.3. Physicochemical Characteristics of 'Sambura'
25.3.1 Moisture
25.3.2 Ash
25.3.3 Lipids
25.3.4 Protein<
25.3.5 Fiber
25.3.6 Carbohydrates
25.3.7 pH
25.3.8 Free Acidity
25.3.9 Water activity (Aw)
25.3.10 Total Energy Value
25.4. Microbiological Characteristics of 'Sambura'
25.5. Pollen Analysis
26. Characterization of Pot-Pollen from Southern Venezuela
26.1. Introduction
26.2. Venezuelan Stingless Bees
26.3. Botanical Origin of Venezuelan Pot-Pollen
26.4. Proximal Analysis of Venezuelan Pot-Pollen
26.5 Bioactive Components and Antioxidant Activity of Pot-Pollen Ethanolic Extracts
26.5.1 Preparation of the Ethanolic Extracts
26.5.2 Bioactive components
26.5.3 Flavonoids by HPLC-UV
26.5.4 Antioxidant Activity of Venezuelan Pot-Pollen Homogenates
26.6. Conclusions
27. Bioactivity and Botanical Origin of Austroplebeia and Tetragonula Australian Pot-Pollen
27.1. Introduction
27.2. Nutraceutical Properties of Bee Pollen
27.3. Botanical Origin of Australian Pot-Pollen
27.4. Flavonoids, Polyphenols and Antioxidant Activity
27.5. Antibacterial Activity of Australian Pot-Pollen
27.6. Conclusions
28. Antibacterial Activity of Ethanolic Extracts of Pot-Pollen from Eight Meliponine Species from Venezuela
28.1. Introduction
28.1.1 Biological Potential of Pollen Stored in Bee Nests
28.1.2 Aim of the Chapter
28.2. Pot-Pollen Samples and Ethanolic Extraction
28.3. Well Diffusion Agar and Minimal Inhibitory Concentration Methods
28.4. Antibacterial Activity of Venezuelan Pot-Pollen Ethanolic Extracts
28.4.1 Inhibition Zone Diameters
28.4.2 Minimal Inhibitory Concentrations
28.4.3 Antibacterial Activity of Pollen and Polyphenols
28.4. Conclusions
29. Metabolomics of Pot-Pollen from Three Species of Australian Stingless Bees (Meliponini)
29.1. Introduction
29.1.1 Historical Accounts of Australian Pot-Pollen
29.1.2 Health Benefits of Bee Pollen
29.1.3 Botanical Sources within Flight Range<
29.1.4 Food Security
29.1.5 Research in Australian Meliponini Bee Products
29.1.6 Aim of the Chapter
29.2. Methods of Chromatographic Analysis of Pot-Pollen
29.2.1 Sampling Pot-Pollen from Bee Hives of Australian Meliponini
29.2.2 Extraction
29.2.3 Volatiles by HS-SPME-GC-MS
29.2.4 Chemical constituents by UPLC-DAD-ESI(-)-MS/MS
29.2.5 Targeted Analyses of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids (PA) by ESI(+)-MS/MS
29.2.6 Metabolomics of Pot-Pollen VOCs and Phenolics
29.3. Chemometrics of Australian Meliponini Pot-Pollen
29.3.1 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
29.3.2 Secondary Metabolites by LC-UV-HRMS/MS
29.3.3 Chemometrics Using Open Source Data
29.4. Future studies of Australian Pot-Pollen
29.4.1 Botanical and ecological studies
29.4.2 Microbiological and Metabolomics of Australian Pot-Pollen
29.4.3 Recent Trends in Australian Meliponiculture
29.5. Conclusions
SECTION 6
Marketing and Standards of Pot-Pollen
30. Rural-Urban Meliponiculture and Ecosystems in Neotropical areas. Scaptotrigona, a Resilient Stingless Bee?
30.1. Introduction 30.2. Initiatives to Revitalize Stingless Bee Keeping
30.3. Traditional Knowledge Involving Scaptotrigona
30.4. One stingless bee, Scaptotrigona over Melipona
30.5. Naming Pot-Honey and Pot-Pollen in Labels of Commercial Products
30.6. Future of Social Interventions in Meliponiculture
31. Pot-Pollen "Sambura" Marketing in Brazil, and Suggested Legisation
31.1. Introduction
31.2. Pot-Pollen is Known as 'Sambura' in Brazil
31.3. Meliponine Species Used for the Production of 'Sambura'
31.4. Harvesting and Processing
31.5. Marketing of Meliponine 'Sambura'
31.6. Cultural Aspects of Pot-Pollen Consumption in Brazil
31.7. Strategies to Increase the Production of ?Sambura'
31.8. Seasonality of Pot-Pollen
31.9. Pot-Pollen Production Initiatives in Brazilian States
31.10. Suggested 'Sambura' Standards for Pot-Pollen Legislation
Appendix A
Ethnic Names of Stingless Bees
Appendix B
Microorganisms Associated with Stingless Bees or Used to Test Antimicrobial Activity (AM)
ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL
Appendix C
Taxonomic Index of Bees
Appendix D
List of Bee Taxa
Appendix E
Taxonomic Index of Plant Families
Appendix F
List of Plant Taxa Used by Bees
INDEX
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